Abba: An Aramaic word used as an affectionate term of address to someone’s father. Yeshua used it to refer to God as His Father, and believers in Jesus also use it today to address God as Father. In modern Hebrew, this common name means Dad, Daddy, or Papa (also see Mark 14:36 and Romans 8:15).

Adar: the twelfth month of the Jewish biblical calendar.

Adonai: literally, my Lord, a word the TaNaKh uses to refer to God.

ADONAI: The Tetragrammaton, meaning the four-letter name of YHVH (Yud Hay Vav Hay). Since its pronunciation is not known, and also out of respect for God’s name, Jews traditionally substitute the words ADONAI and Ha’Shem. ADONAI, however, is more of an affectionate name like daddy (also see Exodus 3:15; Jeremiah 1:9; Psalm 1:2; Matthew 1:22; Mark 5:19; Luke 1:5; John 1:23).

ADONAI Elohei-Tzva’ot: the LORD God of heaven’s angelic armies. God does not have many names, as seen here and below, He has only one name – YHVH (Yud Hay Vav Hay). All the other names in the Bible describe His characteristics and His attributes.

ADONAI Elohim: This is the Hebrew word for LORD God. This title links Isra’el’s God, the God of the Covenant, with God as Creator of the universe (also see Genesis 2:4; Isaiah 48:16; Psalm 72:18; Luke 1:32; Revelation 1:8).

ADONAI Nissi: the LORD my Banner (see Exodus 17:15; Psalm 20:1).

ADONAI Shalom: the LORD of Peace.

ADONAI, The Angel of: He is called the Angel of ADONAI 58 times and He is called the Angel of God 11 times. This is never a common angel, but the second Person of the Trinity, Yeshua. This is always a reference to the pre-incarnate Messiah. Significantly, the rabbis teach that the phrase the Angel of ADONAI is sometimes used to denote God Himself.

ADONAI Tzidkenu: the LORD our Righteousness.

ADONAI-Tzva’ot: The LORD of heaven’s angelic armies (see Joshua 5:13-15; Second Kings 19:31; Psalm 24:10; Second Corinthians 6:18).

Adversary, The: Satan, the devil, the prince of the power of the air, and the old dragon.

Afikomen: Literally, “That which comes after.” Piece of matzah that is hidden during the Seder, to be found and eaten after the third cup of redemption.

Amen: At the end of a prayer, this word means, “It is true,” or “Let it be so,” or “May it become true,” indicating that the readers or listeners agree with what has just been said. Although everything Yeshua said was true, “amen” adds special emphasis (also see Deuteronomy 27:25; Jeremiah 28:6; Psalm 41:14; Nehemiah 8:6; Matthew 5:26; Mark 10:15; Luke 23:43; John 10:1).

Anti-missionaries: Today they are Orthodox Jews who champion Jews for Judaism through the organization called “Jews for Moses” to combat “Jews for Jesus.” They do not limit their mischief to harassing missionaries; any Jewish believer is a target. It is unfortunate that so many of these anti-missionaries feel their ends justify certain unethical means. In order to “protect” Judaism, they do or encourage others to do what Judaism condemns. In Paul’s day, they were the Judaizers who wanted Gentile believers to add obedience to the 613 commandments of Moshe, circumcision, and eating kosher to Paul’s salvation equals faith-plus-nothing Gospel.

Ariel: lion of God, or fireplace on God’s altar.

Aviv: the first month of the biblical year, corresponding to the modern Jewish month of Nisan.

Avraham: Abraham

Azazel: a scapegoat or goat demon sent out in the wilderness on Yom Kippur.

Ba’al: the chief male god of the Phoenicians and Canaanites. The word means lord or master.

Bar Mitzvah: Hebrew for “Son of the Commandment.” Although not specifically mentioned in the Bible, it is a Jewish coming of age ritual in which a young man, or Bat Mitzvah for a young woman, chooses to follow the commandments of their forefathers and takes responsibility for their own relationship with the God of Isra’el. This ceremony normally takes place at age 13 for boys or age 12 for girls. Afterwards, he/she is theoretically considered to be an adult, but in modern Judaism this is mostly symbolic, and a twelve-year-old is not treated like an adult.

BCE: These abbreviations, which mean “Before the Common Era,” are commonly used within the Jewish community instead of the more common BC, or, “Before Christ,” and AD, or “Anno Domini,” which is Latin for “in the year of our Lord.”

Beit-Lechem: Bethlehem, the birthplace of David and Yeshua, meaning house of bread.

B’midbar: the book of Numbers

Bnei-Yisrael: The children of Isra’el.

B’resheet: Genesis

B’rit Chadashah: Hebrew for the New Covenant. Christians commonly call it the New Testament.

Challah: Challah is a special bread of Ashkenazi Jewish origin, usually braided and typically eaten on ceremonial occasions such as Shabbat and major Jewish holidays. Ritually acceptable challah is made of dough from which a small portion has been set aside as an offering.

Chesed: “mercy,” “lovingkindness,” and/or “covenant-loyalty.” It is a complex word that summarizes God’scomplex and overwhelming love for His people, going beyond the concepts of love, mercy or kindness all together (also see Isaiah 63:7; Zechariah 7:1; Psalm 13:1; Psalm 86:1; Psalm 107:1; Psalm 118:1; Psalm 136:1).

Clear oil: In the oil pressing process this would have been oil from the first of three or pressings. The first pressing, most likely done by adding one stone weight to a wooden bean which then put pressure onto a bag of olives by being forced downward by the weight, was the one which produced the purest oil. This was traditionally the oil used in the Temple.

Cohen of Ha’Elyon: Priest of the God Most High.

Cohen: A priest, a man who offered sacrifices and performed other religious rituals at the Temple in Jerusalem.

Cohanim: The Cohanim were descended from Aaron, the brother of Moses. The Sadducees were from this priestly sect of Judaism.

Cohen Rosh Gadol: The Great High Priest who served as the head religious official, the only one to enter the Most Holy Place. Aaron, the brother of Moses, was the first man appointed as the Cohen Gadol. In later times, the Cohen Gadol was in charge of the Temple and its administration. The Cohen Gadol Caiaphas, played a key role in questioning Yeshua at His trial. The writer of Hebrews describes Messiah as our great Cohen Gadol, who gives us access to God’s throne in the heavenly sanctuary (also see Leviticus 21:10; Haggai 1:14; Nehemiah 3:1; Matthew 26:57ff; Mark 14:61ff; John 18:19ff; Hebrews 4:14ff and 10:19-22).

Covenant: Theologically, it speaks of the contractual relationship between God and His people. The Hebrew term is b’rit. Also see B’rit Chadashah, Hebrew for New Covenant (see Genesis 6:18 and 17:2; Jeremiah 31:30; Nehemiah 9:32; Matthew 26:28; Mark 14:24; Luke 1:72).

Defile, or tam’ei in Hebrew: This is not a sinful condition, but a condition of life. From this we can see that being tam’ei is merely a state of being unable to participate in the Temple service until cleansed because the person has come into contact with the realm of sin and/or death, not necessarily because the person has sinned himself.

Diaspora, the Dispersion: the scattering of the Jewish people in exile throughout the world. Today almost 7 million Jews live in Isra’el, and over 8 million more Jews live in the Diaspora (also see Isaiah 11:10; John 7:35).

Diver-Hayamim Alef: First Chronicles

Diver-Hayamim Bet: Second Chronicles

Diviners, Babylonian: Hebrew: gezar, primarily means to cut or divide. The term conveys a sense of separation or determination, often implying authority or finality in a decision being made. They were important in a theocratic society that was shaped by divine and royal decrees.

Drash: A drash is a long d’var.

D’var: Is a short talk on topics relating to a parashah, the weekly Torah portion.

D’vaim: Deuteronomy

Echad: The Hebrew word for “one” or “unity.” Echad is used in the Shema (Deuteronomy 6:4).

Eikhah: Lamentations

Elyon: A title for God, meaning the Most High God (see Luke 1:35 and 76; Acts 7:48). A longer form is El Elyon, God Most High (also see Deuteronomy 32:8; Isaiah 14:14; Psalm 91:1; Acts 16:17).

Elohim: “God” in general terms, or as Creator. Compared with ADONAI, God’s “covenant name” is used especially in His relationship to the Jewish people. Elohim is the plural form of El, also found in the Bible occasionally with the same meaning. Yeshua is sometimes called Ben-Elohim, the Son of God (also see Genesis 2:19; Isaiah 61:11; Matthew 4:3; Mark 1:1; Luke 1:35; John 11:4).

El Shaddai: God Almighty

Emissaries: Apostles

Enchanters, Babylonian: Hebrew: ashshaph, refers to a class or wise men who were often consulted for their ability to interpret dreams, signs, and omens, and as such, were key figures in the king’s advisory team.

God-fearers: These were Gentiles who became convinced that ADONAI was the only true God, they abandoned their paganism and idolatry, but they did not choose to become a proselyte in any form, and hence there was no adoption of Jewish customs or practices (see the commentary on Acts, to see link click Bb – An Ethiopian Asks about Isaiah).

Goyim: the nations, non-Jews, Gentiles

Gehenna: The word for “hell,” the place of perpetual misery and suffering after this life. It comes from the Greek word Genna and the Hebrew word Gei-Hinnom, which means the valley of Hinnom. There was actually such a valley by that name south of the Temple in Jerusalem. It was used as a garbage dump, and fires were always burning there, making it a suitable picture of life in hell. In Jewish sources, the term is used as the opposite of Gan-Eden, or the Garden of Eden or Paradise (Matthew 23:33; Mark 9:43).

Gentiles: A term for individuals or groups who are not Jewish. In Hebrew a common word for Gentile is goy or goyim is the plural form (see Isaiah 8:23; Matthew 10:18; Mark 10:33).

Go’el: Literally, a redeemer, used both for God and of people. In the book of Ruth, go’el means the kinsman-redeemer, a close relative obligated to defend and protect his kin. The go’el could buy back (redeem) land or someone who sold himself into slavery, and could marry a widow in the family in order to protect her future. The human go’el is a picture of God the greater Go’el who protects and redeems us, the members of His family (see Ruth 3:9-12).

Hag ha’Matzah: The Feast of Unleavened Bread

Halakhah: are mitzvot governing Jewish life and comes from the Hebrew root to walk. The rabbis used the term to refer to the legal way to walk out the commandments of the Torah. It can also refer to the Oral Law (see the commentary on The Life of Christ Ei – The Oral Law). A (one) halakhah is a specific ruling given regarding a particular issue, “the halakhah” being the ruling accepted and observed by the Jewish community.

Hametz or Chametz: The Hebrew word for leaven, or yeast, which makes bread rise. God commanded Isra’elnot to eat hametz during Passover, Yeshua teaches that both good and evil spread, the same way hametzleavens the whole batch of dough (Also see 16:6-12; Mark 8:15; Luke 12:1 Exodus 12:20; Leviticus 7:13; Amos 4:5; Matthew 13:33 and 13:21).

Hanukkah: Meaning dedication, the feast lasts eight days and commemorates the victory of the Maccabees over the armies of Antiochus Epiphanes in 165 BC and the rebuilding and dedication of the Temple after its desecration by Syrian invaders.

Hanukkiah: a candelabra specifically designed to hold the nine candles on Hanukkah, one candle for each night and an extra candle in the middle, with which to light the other candles. The candles are lit from right to left.

Ha’Shem: The Tetragrammaton, meaning the four-letter name of YHVH. Since its pronunciation is not known, and also out of respect for God’s name, Jews traditionally substitute the words ADONAI and Ha’Shem. While ADONAI is more of an affectionate name like daddy, Ha’Shem is a more formal name like sir (also see Exodus 3:15; Jeremiah 1:9; Psalm 1:2, Matthew 1:22; Mark 5:19; Luke 1:5; John 1:23).

Hellenist: In the B’rit Chadashah, it refers to Jews who lived in the Diaspora, or had moved to Isra’el from the Diaspora, spoke Greek, and were more Greek in their culture, than traditional Jewish people brought up in Isra’el (Acts 6:1, 9:29, 11:20).

Immerse: To dip the whole body under water as an act of dedication to the LORD, or as a profession of faith in Yeshua. The word is often seen in other translations as “baptize.” The ceremony of dipping is called “immersion” or “baptism.” Yeshua’s cousin was known as John the Immerser (Matthew 3:1; Mark 6:14; Luke 7:20).

Imputation: To reckon or charge to one’s account. When the Spirit gives life (John 6:63a), that means that all the righteousness of Christ is transferred to your spiritual account at the moment of faith. What is true of Messiah is true of you, minus His deity.

Incarnation: The divine revelation (Hebrews 1:1-2) of YHVH becoming one with humanity as an ordinary human being in the person of Yeshua Messiah. He was one-hundred percent man and one-hundred percent God. The Triune God knew that the Second Person would come to earth to be subject to numerous evils: hunger, ridicule, rejection, and death. He did this in order to negate sin, and therefore, its evil effects.

Iyov: Job

Jerusalem Council: An early guiding body of believers that convened around 50/51 CE, made up of the apostles, elders, and other prominent figures within the Messianic community (see the commentary on Acts Bs – The Council at Jerusalem). The purpose of the council was to decide whether or not Gentiles must convert to Judaism, and therefore, be obligated to be circumcised and Torah observant before becoming part of the Messianic community. The final decision, after much debate, was that Gentiles are not required to convert to Judaism, and therefore, not obligated to undergo circumcision or be Torah observant. But, they did retain some prohibitions (see Acts Bt – The Council’s Letter to the Gentile Believers).

Judaizers: Jewish false teachers, who taught that obedience to the 613 commandments of the Torah were necessary to have a relationship with God, and opposed Paul at every turn. Everywhere Paul went, the Judaizers were sure to follow. Once Paul established a church in Galatia, as soon as he left, they would come in and distort the Gospel of Messiah (1:7).

Justification: The act of God whereby, negatively, He forgives the sins of believers and, positively, He declares them righteous by imputing the obedience and righteousness of Messiah to them through faith (Luke 18:9-14). It is not a reward for anything good we have done. It is not something we cooperate with God in (in other words, it is not sanctification). It is an utterly undeserved free gift of the mercy of ADONAI (Romans 3:24; Titus 3:7). It is entirely accomplished by God, once and for all, at the moment of salvation. It results in good deeds (James 2:14-26) and sanctification over our lifetime.

Kadosh: The Hebrew word for ‘holy.” This term describes the people set apart for God. ADONAI Himself is kodosh (Leviticus 19:1-2). Many letters to Christ’s newly formed communities (churches) address Yeshua’s followers as the Kedoshim (also see Jeremiah 2:3; Nehemiah 8:10; First Corinthians 1:2; Ephesians 1:1; Philippians 1:1; Colossians 1:2).

Kedoshim: The holy ones

Kippah: Known as a yarmulke or skullcap, a kippah is a head covering for Jews. The tradition to wear a kippah does not come from any biblical passage. Rather, it is a custom which evolved as a sign of recognition that there is Someone “above” who watches our every act.

Kohelet: Ecclesiastes

Korban: The root of the word korban, can be translated to bring near. A korban, then, should be defined as something brought near. The reason it is so named is that the person bringing an offering did so in order to be brought near to God. It was a sacrifice or offering dedicated to God, especially to fulfill a vow. If something was to be dedicated to God, it generally could not be used for other purposes. Some Pharisees and teachers of the Torah wrongly used this as an excuse not to provide for their parents in their old age, even though Jewish teaching insisted that the commandment to honor one’s father and mother extended to providing for their physical needs (see Mark 7:11).

Kosher: Kosher foods are those that conform to the Jewish dietary regulations of kashrut, primarily derived from Leviticus and Deuteronomy. Food that may be consumed according to halakha is termed kosher in English, from the Ashkenazi pronunciation of the Hebrew term kashér, meaning “fit”.

Levite: Descendants of the tribe of Levi, who served in the Tabernacle and Temple as gatekeepers, musicians, teachers, and assistants to the priests. The scribes, or Torah-teachers, originally came only from among the Levites and were the forerunners of the Pharisees. They later expanded to include members who were from all tribes, with no affiliation with Levi required. (Also see Exodus 4:14; Ezeki’el 48:12; Ezra 1:5; John 1:19).

LORD: When the translators of the King James Bible in the 1600’s came to the Hebrew word YHVH, they needed to distinguish it from the word Lord, meaning master. So, they capitalized it. Therefore, LORD is actually the Tetragrammaton, meaning the four-letter name of YHVH.

LXX (Septuagint): The “official” Greek translation of the TaNaKh, dating from the third century BC through the fourth century AD. The original translation was of the Torah (the five books of Moshe), which the Letter of Aristeas records was allegedly made by seventy Jewish scholars in Alexandria (Egypt) from which it gained its name (Septuagint). It is commonly referred to by the abbreviation, LXX (70).

Mattityahu: Matthew

Midrash: An ancient commentary on part of the TaNaKh, attached to the biblical text. It also offers existing and potential interpretations of Jewish halacha.

Mikhah: Micah

Magi, Babylonian: Hebrew: chartom, refers to a magician or wise man, often associated with the practice of interpreting dreams, or performing magic.

Mal’akhi: Malachi

Malki-Tzedek: Melchizedek.

Mashiach (Hebrew): Messiah, the Anointed One (Matthew 26:63; Mark 1:1; John 20:31). 

Matzah (singular) or Matzot (plural): Unleavened bread, which is made without yeast, eaten especially during the feast of Passover. Also see hametz (also see Exodus 13:6; Leviticus 2:5; Ezeki’el 45:21; Matthew 26:17; Mark 14:22; Luke 22:19; John 13:26). 

Masoretic Text: The official text of the TaNaKh edited by the Masoretes, or Jewish grammarians, during the sixth to tenth centuries AD. This text is “pointed” with various vowel signs and accents which were lacking in the previous texts.

M’chitzah, the: The middle wall of separation (see the commentary on Acts Cn – Paul’s Advice from Jacob and the Elders at Tziyon).

Megillah (singular) or Megillot (plural): The five books in the Writings used for special readings during the holidays: Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes and Esther.

Menorah (singular) or Menorot (plural): It is simply the Hebrew word for “lamp.” The seven branched lampstand(s) designed and commanded by God for service in the Tabernacle/Temple (Exodus 25:32; First Kings 7:49; Zechariah 4:2).

Messiah (Greek): Christ, the Anointed One, often used in speaking of a Redeemer sent from God to free His people from exile and oppression (also see Matthew 1:16; Mark 8:29; Luke 2:11 and John 1:41).

Midrash (singular) or Midrashim (plural): allegorical interpretation or application of a text. The listener is expected to understand that the writer of the midrash is not expounding the plain meaning of the text, but introducing his own ideas.

Mikveh: a bath or pool with a flow of fresh water; used in Orthodox Judaism to this day for ritual purification or ceremonial cleansing, performed at various times in a person’s life (see Matthew 3:13 and Titus 3:5).

Mishlei: Proverbs

Mishnah, The: is the first major written collection of the Jewish oral traditions that are known as the Oral Law (see below). 

Mitzvah (singular) or mitzvot (plural): Primarily a commandment from God in the Torah. (Deuteronomy 11:22; Second Kings 17:37; Proverbs 6:20; Matthew 26:10; Mark 14:6). Today, a more modern meaning would be “a good deed,” more broadly, a general principle for living.

M’Lakhim Alef: First Kings

M’Lakhim Bet: Second Kings

Moshe: Moses.

Nachum: Nahum

Nechemyah: Nehemiah

Olam haba: “The age to come,” or “the world to come.” It describes a time after the world is perfected under the rulership of Messiah. This term also refers to the afterlife, where the soul passes after death. It can be contrasted with olam ha-zeh, “this world” (Matthew 12:32; Mark 10:30; Luke 18:30 and 20:35; Ephesians 1:21; Hebrews 6:5; Revelation 20-21).

Omer: Meaning “sheaf,” the bundle of barley used in the Firstfruits offering. After the Temple period it came to be identified with Sefirat ha’Omer, or the counting of the omer, the counting of the days from Firstfruits to Shavu’ot.

Oral Law: The Oral Law refers to the Talmud, which is a compilation of rabbinic commentaries on the first five books of Moses, called the Torah. The Talmud, completed around 500 ACE, consists of the Mishnah as well as commentary on the Mishnah called Gemara (Mishnah + Gemara = Talmud). The tradition grew to include a further compendium called Midrash until about the 12^th century. The rabbis taught that when the Messiah came, He would not only believe in the Oral Law, but He would participate in the making of new Oral Laws (see the commentary on The Life of Christ Ei – The Oral Law).

‘Ovadyah: Obadiah

Pentateuch: Another name of the Torah, it refers to the first five books of Moses.

Pesach: Passover. The Jewish festival commemorating deliverance from Egyptian bondage. In Biblical times Jews used to journey to the Temple, sacrifice lambs there, and eat a special meal commemorating the departure of the Jews from slavery in Egypt. It was one of the three “pilgrimage festivals” that all able-bodied Jews were expected to celebrate before YHVH in Yerushalayim. Today, Passover is celebrated at home with a special meal called a seder. Yeshua celebrated Passover with His apostles (Matthew 26:18; Mark 14:12; Luke 22:7; John 13:1).

Pharisees: One of the sects of Judaism in the first century. The Pharisees had their own views of how exactly to keep Torah. They were especially concerned with ritual impurity and (unlike the Sadducees) they believed in the resurrection of the dead. While the Sadducees were more involved with the Temple, the Pharisees were concerned more with home and synagogue life.

Propitiation: The averting of God’s wrath by means of the substitutionary and efficacious (producing the desired effect) sacrifice (death) of Yeshua Messiah (the atonement). It is the work of Messiah that satisfies every claim of God’s holiness and justice so that Ha’Shem is free to act on behalf of sinners.

Proselytes of the Covenant: In the third level of Gentile relationship to Judaism (see above), there were proselytes of the Covenant. They entered into the Covenant of Sinai as a full Jew, so to speak. Most of these were women because this level required circumcision.

Proselytes at the Gate: There were three levels of Gentile relationship to Judaism. After God-fearers and proselytes of the Gate were the second level. The Gate was the middle wall of separation (Ephesians 2:14) in the Temple compound that Gentiles were not allowed to go beyond under penalty of death (see the commentary on Acts Bb – An Ethiopian Asks about Isaiah 53). These were Gentiles who adopted many Jewish practices like celebrating Shabbat and the feast of Isra’el, but did not become a full proselyte. Most of these were men because it didn’t require circumcision.

Purim: Meaning “lots,” is the holiday based on the story of Esther.

Qumran: A site overlooking the Dead Sea where Jewish sects lived in religious communities from 135 BC to 70 AD and from which we have numerous documents which are frequently referred to as the Dead Sea Scrolls. These texts include partial copies and fragments of most of the biblical books (the only whole copy is Isaiah), apocryphal writings such as Enoch, and texts produced by the community itself (the manual of Discipline and the Thanksgiving Hymns). The texts are referred to according to the number of the cave in which they were discovered (for example, 1Qs [Community Rule], 11Q Temp [Temple Scroll]).

Rasheet: One of several names for the Festival of First Fruits.

Redeemed: Setting free from slavery, buying back something lost, for a price.

Righteous of the TaNaKh: Old Testament believers.

Rosh Ha’Shanah: Hebrew for “Head of the Year.” Known as the Jewish New Year, or the Feast of Trumpets.

Ruach: The Hebrew word for “spirit,” “breath,” or “wind.” Yeshua explains wind and Spirit to Nicodemus in John 3:5-8. Scripture frequently refers to the Ruach Ha’Kodesh, the Holy Spirit (Exodus 35:31; Numbers 11:25; Malachi 2:15; Acts 2:2 and 10:44; Romans 8:4-17).

Ruach Ha’Kodesh: The Hebrew name for the Spirit of God, or the Holy Spirit (Isaiah 63:11; Psalm 51:13; Matthew 1:20; Mark 1:8; Luke 1:16; John 14:26).

Rut: Ruth

Sadducees: One of the sects of Judaism in the first century. From the Sadducees came the leading priests who managed the affairs of the Temple. In contrast to the Pharisees, they did not believe in the resurrection of the dead (Matthew 16:12; Mark 12:18; Luke 20:27).

Shir-Hashirim: Song of Solomon

Sh’mu’el Alef: First Samuel

Sh’mu’el Bet: Second Samuel

Sanhedrin: Literally, the gathering of the seated, like being a judge seated on a bench – a legal term for an officiating judge. This was the Supreme Court of ancient Isra’el. It exercised legislative and judicial authority (Matthew 26:59; Mark 15:1; Luke 22:66; John 11:47).

Sanctification: To be set apart, specifically, to the holy use and purposes of God. It is a process that takes a whole lifetime. It is the work of God in which you cooperate (Romans 12:1-2; First Corinthians 10:13; Hebrews 12:3-4; First Peter 5:8-9); and is a process Ephesians 4:11-16), trusting in God, apart from whom we can do nothing (John 15:5; Ephesians 3:16; Colossians 1:11; Hebrews 2:18 and 4:14). He who began a good work in you will carry it on to completion until the day of Christ Jesus (Phil 1:6).

Septuagint: The Septuagint is the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures and was presumably made for the Jewish community in Egypt when Greek was the common language throughout the region. It is also called the translation of the Seventy because tradition states that the Septuagint was translated by seventy rabbis. In academia, the Septuagint is often abbreviated as LXX (the Roman numeral for seventy) in honor of this translation.

Shabbat: The Sabbath Day, the seventh day of the week, when work ceases. On this day God’s people are beckoned to rest and renew our relationship with our Creator, who also rested on the seventh day. Shabbat begins on Friday evening at sundown and ends Saturday evening after three stars appear (Exodus 20:10; Nehemiah 9:14; Matthew 12:10; Mark 1:21; Luke 23:56; John 9:14).

Shaddai: A common name for God in the TaNaKh, usually translated as Almighty. The name is often used in a combination such as El Shaddai, or God Almighty (Genesis 17:1; Ezeki’el 1:24; Job 11:7).

Shall be cut off: This phrase may mean that the person is stoned to death, or that he is barred from returning to the Tabernacle or Temple to offer sacrifices. This person would be cherem, literally set apart for destruction, either physically or culturally.

Sh’mot: Exodus

Shof’tim: Judges

Shaliach: A legal representative, meaning one who is sent.

Shalom: The Hebrew word for peace, wholeness, wellness and true happiness; it is a greeting used when meeting or departing (Genesis 26:31; First Samuel 16:4; Second Chronicles 18:16; Matthew 10:13; Mark 9:50; Luke 1:28; John 14:27).

Sh’khinah glory: The visual manifestation of the glory of God.

Shavu’ot: the festival of Weeks (Hebrew) or Pentecost (Greek), since it comes seven weeks after Pesach; also called Pentecost, from the Greek word for fifty because one counts fifty days after Passover. It is one of the three “pilgrimage festivals” that all able-bodied Jews were expected to celebrate before YHVH in Yerushalayim. It originally celebrated the harvest, but later commemorated the day God gave the Torah to Isra’el. After Yeshua’s resurrection, the disciples waited for God’s gift of the Ruach Ha’Kodesh, which also came on Shavu’ot (Exodus 34:22; Second Chronicles 8:13; Acts 2:1 and 20:16; First Corinthians 16:8).

Sh’ol: The Hebrew equivalent of the Greek “Hades,” the place where the dead exist.

Shofar: A ram’s horn, used in the Bible for summoning armies, calling to repentance, and in other situations. Blasts of various lengths and numbers signified different instructions. Metal trumpets were also used for similar purposes, but exclusively by the cohanim. Today, the shofar is used on Rosh ha-Shanah of Yom Kippur, the Jewish High Holy Days. The shofar also ushers in the Year of Jubilee (Leviticus 25:9-10; Zechariah 9:14; Matthew 24:31; First Corinthians 15:52; First Thessalonians 4:16-17).

Sinai: the mountain in the desert between Egypt and the land of Isra’el.

Shuwb: turn, turning, and the big idea of Jeremiah.

Son of Man: A name that Yeshua commonly used to refer to Himself. It comes from Dani’el 7:13-14, in which the Son of Man is given all authority. This name sometimes emphasizes Yeshua’s humanity and sometimes His deity (Matthew 9:6; Mark 9:31; Luke 21:36; John 6:27).

Sorcerers: Hebrew: kashaph, refers to the use of drugs, potions, or spells and is associated with “sorcery” or “witchcraft.”

Sukkot: the festival of Booths or Tabernacles, celebrating the forty years when the people of Isra’el lived in booths, tents, shacks, in the desert between Egypt and the land of Isra’el. The Hebrew word sukkah means booth and sukkot is the plural and means booths. Sukkot is one of the three “pilgrimage festivals” that all able-bodied Jews were expected to celebrate before YHVH in Yerushalayim (Leviticus 23:34; Zechariah 14:16; Second Chronicles 8:13; Matthew 17:4; Mark 9:5; Luke 9:33).

Synagogue: A place of assembly for Jews for hearing the Torah, praying and worshipping God. There were many synagogues throughout Isra’el and the Greco-Roman world (Matthew 4:23; Mark 5:22; Luke 4:16; John 9:22).

Tabernacle: A temporary dwelling, such as the booths constructed during Sukkot. It is also used in the TaNaKh of the tent in which God dwelt among the Jewish people, both in the wilderness and in the land of Isra’el. When the word is used as a verb, it refers to Yeshua coming to dwell among His people (John 1:14), reminding us of the wilderness Tabernacle and also of the Feast of Tabernacles (Exodus 25:9; First Chronicles 6:17; John 1:14 and 7:2).

Talmid (singular) or Talmudim (plural): Student or students.

Talmud: The codified body of Jewish Oral Law; includes literary creations, legends, scriptural interpretations, comprising the Mishnah and the Gemara.

TaNaKh: The Hebrew word TaNaKh is an acronym, based on the letters T for “Torah”,N for “Nevi’im” (Prophets), and K for “Ketuv’im” (Sacred Writings). It is a collection of the teachings of God to human beings in document form. This term is used instead of the phrase, “the Old Testament,” which sounds “old” and outdated.

Tehillim: Psalms

Torah: Literally, this Hebrew word means teaching or instruction (Exodus 13:9; Isaiah 2:3; Psalm 1:2; Matthew 5:17; Mark 1:22; Luke 24:44; John 7:19; Romans 7:1ff; First Corinthians 9:20-21; Galatians 3:21). It can be used for the five books of Moshe, or more generally for God’s commandments, or the whole TaNaKh (John 10:34). Uncapitalized, torah can be understood generally as a law or principle (Romans 7:21-8:2).

Torah-Teacher: A Torah scribe engaged in interpreting and transmitting the Torah. They wrote Torah scrolls, bills of divorce, and other legal documents. The Hebrew term is sofer.

Tree of Life, The: The tree at the center of the garden of Eden (Genesis 2:9, 3:24), the source of eternal life. Scripture points to a future in the B’rit Chadashah, with access to the Tree of Life. In the meantime, the Torahis like the Tree of Life to those who embrace her, and blessed will be all who hold firmly to her (Proverbs 3:18 also see Revelation 2:7, 22:2 and 14).

Tzedakah: Is a Hebrew word meaning righteousness, but commonly used to signify an ethical obligation to do what is right, and is commonly used to signify charity.

Tz’Fanyah: Zephaniah

Tzitzit: A fringe that was put on a garment in accordance with Numbers 15:37-41.

Tziyon: Zion, Mount Zion, was originally the City of David, south of the modern Old City of Yerushalayim. Later the name Tziyon came to refer metaphorically to the Temple Mount, Jerusalem, or the people of Isra’el. The hill now called Mount Tziyon was given its name in the fourth century AD (Isaiah 1:27; Psalm 65:2; Matthew 21:5; John 12:15).

Vayikra: Leviticus

Yarmelkes: see Kippah.

Yechezk’el: Ezeki’el

Yeshivah: The Hebrew word yeshivah comes from the word that means sit and it signifies a place for learning Torah. The Greek word schole, which gives us the English word school, means lecture hall. No English word really comes close to the real meaning of yeshivah, but the Yiddish word shul, or school, comes the closest.

Yeshua: The Hebrew name for our Messiah, known in English as Jesus, and is a masculine form, and a word play on yeshu’ah (salvation) (Matthew 1:21; Mark 6:14; Luke 2:21; John 19:19).

Yerushalayim: Jerusalem.

Yesha’yahu: Isaiah

Y’hoshua: Joshua

Y’hudah: Judah.

YHVH: The Tetragrammaton, meaning the Name, the four-letter name of God. Therefore, God does not have many names, He has only one name – YHVH (Yud Hay Vav Hay). All the other names in the Bible describe His characteristics and His attributes.

Yirmeyahu: Jeremiah

Yisra’el: Isra’el.

Yochanan: John.

Yo’el: Joel

Yom ha’Bikkurim: One of several names for The Feast of Firstfruits.

Yom Kippur: The Day of Atonement, the close of the High Holy Days, and considered the holiest day of the year in traditional Judaism.

Yonah: Jonah

Z’Kharyah: Zechariah

Judges from a Messianic Perspective

To Levi, my great-grandson, although you are only nine-years-old right now, I pray that you will grow up and honor your namesake in the Bible by drawing close to God, discovering and using your spiritual gift(s), living a godly life, and being a godly man and leader for your family.

Title: The traditional name of the Book, Shophetim, is as early as the Talmudical period (B. B. 14b), and has the support of the LXX (the Septuagint, the Greek translation of the TaNaKh), Sophateim (Origen), and of the Latin Vulgate, Sophtim (Jerome). The Greek title, as found in the Septuagint, is Kritai, meaning judges. The Greek name is simply a Greek translation of the Hebrew word. The greater part of the book deals with the exploits of a series of national leaders who, by their victories over Isra’el’s enemies, brought her independence from the yoke of oppressive foreigners. The term shophet has a wider connotation in Hebrew than has the English word “judge” or the corresponding nouns in Greek and Latin. It denotes both judicare and vindicare, the latter in the double sense of defending, delivering, and avenging, punishing. The shophet was both judge and governor.

As related in Arnold Fruchtenbaum commentary on Judges, the office of judge was first mentioned by Moses (Deuteronomy 16:18, 17:9, and 19:17). The judge was to stand by the side of the high priest as the supreme judge, or leader, in Isra’el. The judge’s function included much more than just civil services. It also included responsibilities of leadership, in both military and religious affairs. The office of judge carried the judicial sense of administrating justice, but it also included being a military leader. The shophet was inspired by the Spirit and summoned directly for His work by divine appointment (3:15, 4:6, and 6:12).

The nature of a judge in the book of Judges, then, was not just civil, but military and religious as well. The usual order as found in this book is as follows: A judge would first serve as a military leader and deliver Isra’el from some foreign occupation. Only after the military deliverance would the judge serve as a civil leader. These judges, therefore, should not be confused with those appointed by Moses in Exodus 18:21-26. Those were civil judges, appointed to decide issues of case law. However, the ones in the book of Judges were to deliver Isra’el from foreign oppression, usually by war, and then to rule in peacetime.

Author: The actual author of this book is unknown. In rabbinic tradition, the Talmudic tractate Babba Bathra 14b-15a states that Samuel wrote the book (First and Second Samuel were originally one book) that bears his name and also the books of Judges and Ruth. It is certainly possible that Samuel did write portions of Judges. But outside of rabbinic tradition, the actual writer of the book of Judges is unknown.

Date: A total of twelve judges are identified in the book of Judges, with Debrah being the only female judge (Abimelech was not actually a judge, and Eli and Samuel do not appear in this book). The dates of the judges from the death of Joshua until the rise of Sha’ul; in other words, from 1380 to 1043 BC. Judges covers a period of transition, archaeologically speaking, from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age – the period of arrival and settlement of the Philistines. The actual period of the Judges includes not only what is found in the book itself, but also what is found in Ruth, and the first twelve chapters of First Samuel.

Date of composition: The question is: What was the composition of the book of Judges itself? The history within the book covers a period of 350 years, and so whoever wrote the book in its final form had to put together a history that covered three-and-a-half centuries.

The first clue in dealing with the date of the book is this phrase: In those days there was no king in Isra’el, which appears four times in the last five chapters: 17:6, 18:1, 19:1, and 21:25. What this phrase shows is that the book of Judges was written there was no king in Isra’el, and each case contextually gives that reason why a king was necessary.

The second clue concerning the date of the composition is, according to 1:29, that the city of Gezer was still in Canaanite hands. This shows that this book was written before Solomon became king, because Solomon had acquired Gezer by marriage (First Kings 9:16).

The third clue, according to 1:21, is that Jerusalem was still in Jebusite hands. This shows that the book was written before David’s capture of Jerusalem (see the commentary on the Life of David, to see link click Co – David Conquers Yerushalayim).

The fourth clue is the statement that Sidon was the chief deity of the Phoenicians. Before the twelfth century BC, Sidon was dominant over Tyre; after the twelfth century, Tyre was dominant over Sidon.

The fifth clue is that Judges contains a series of parenthetical sections (1:11, 1:23, 3:1-2, 19:10, and 20:27-28) show that the book in its final form was written much later than when the particular events being described in the text. In other words, several times in Judges the author makes a statement, but the statement needed to be explained to his readers, who might not understand how things were done in earlier times.

The sixth clue is that the book contains seven chronological notes that conclude: until this day (1:21, 1:26, 6:24, 10:4, 15:19, 18:12, 19:30), meaning until the time of the writing. It doesn’t mean any particular statement was still after the writing of the book, but at the time it was written, these things were still true.

The seventh clue is that it had to have been written after the 1051 BC because that was the year Samson died. He was the last person named and dealt with in the chronological sequence of the book of Judges.

Putting all those clues together, Judges was written approximately 1000 BC. It was written in the early days of David, when he was king over the tribe of Judah only (see the Life of David Ce – David Anointed King Over Judah), before he became king over all Isra’el.¹

Place in the canon: The Jewish Bible has three mani divisions: the Torah, the Prophets, and the writings. Judges stands second in the section known as the Nevi’im or the Prophets. It is also part of a subdivision known as the “The Former Prophets,” consisting of the historical books which narrate the story of Isra’el from the entry into Canaan to the destruction of the First Temple (see the commentary on Jeremiah Gb – The Destruction of Solomon’s Temple on Tisha B’Av in 586 BC). In the Septuagint, Ruth is attached to Judges, either under the one name Kritai (from the Greek translation for the Hebrew word meaning judges), or under its own name. In some Greek MSS, Judges and Ruth are combined with the Torah and Joshua to form a separate manuscript – The Octateuch, which continues the story of Isra’el’s rise to nationhood and deals with the death of Joshua to the birth of Samuel.

Canaanite gods: (1) El was the head of the Canaanite pantheon and the father of gods and mortals. However, he tended to be weak in comparison to Ba’al. (2) Asherah was the wife of El and the mother of the gods and the goddess of the sea. Her role in the Bible is mentioned in First Kings 15:13 and 18:19; 2 Kings 21:7 and 23:4; and 2 Chronicles 15:16. Also mentioned are the wooden Asherah poles (Deuteronomy 16:21; Second Kings 23:6; Judges 6:25 and 18:30). (3) Ba’al, the storm god, became the most powerful god in the pantheon because of his connection with fertility. He was the dying and rising god of the Canaanites and is mentioned frequently throughout the Bible. (4) Ashtoreth was the female goddess of fertility and the goddess of love and war, closely associated with Ba’al and becoming his female consort. References to her are found in Judges 10:6 and First Samuel 7:4 and 12:10. (5) Anath was Ba’al’s sister and wife and the goddess of love and war, and she tended to be rather bloodthirsty. She does not appear in the Bible, except in a person’s name (3:31).

Attraction and danger for Isra’el: The fertility of the land still held by the Canaanites compared with the less productive part of the land held by Isra’el would give the impression that the gods of the Canaanites seen above were better to their worshippers than the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob were to Isra’el. In Judges, the Jews hold the high ground, the mountainous rocky regions, but the soil was a lot less productive. The Canaanites were able to hold on to the fertile valleys because of their chariots. The Israelites looked upon the fertility of those areas and could logically conclude that the gods of the Canaanites were superior. Secondly, the practice of Canaanite temple prostitution was a very strong temptation. It was part of their worship and contrasted sharply with the sexual morality of the Torah (see the commentary on Leviticus Db – Sexual Sin and Covenant Loyalty).

Continuity between Joshua and Judges: The continuity between Joshua and Judges can be seen in five ways. First: the tribe of Benjamin was unable to conquer Jerusalem (Joshua 15:63 and Judges 1:21). Second: Caleb gave his daughter to Othniel (Joshua 15:15-19 and Judges 1:11-15). Third: Caleb drove out the sons of Anak (Joshua 15:14 and Judges 1:20). Fourth: Ephraim was unable to drive out the Canaanites (Joshua 16:10 and Judges 1:29). And Fifth: both record the death of Joshua (Joshua 24:28-31 and Judges 2:6-10).

The Chronology of Rulers from the Exodus to Solomon’s Temple: It was the 480^th year after the people of Isra’el had left the land of Egypt, in the fourth year of Solomon’s reign over Isra’el, in the month of Ziv, which is the second month, that he began to build the House of ADONAI (see the commentary on the Life of Solomon Ba – This New House).

From the Exodus and Wilderness Wanderings 40 years

The Conquest of the Land 7 years

From the Division of the Land to the Conquest by Cushan 10 years

The Oppression by Cushan 8 years

Othniel and Rest 40 years

The Oppression by Mo’ab 18 years

Ehud and Rest 80 years

Oppression by Jabin 20 years

Deborah and Barak and Rest 40 years

Oppression by Midian 7 years

Gideon and Rest 40 years

The Rule of Abimelech 3 years

Tola 23 years

Jair 22 years

Judges 10:7 implies that Jephthah and Sampson ruled at the same time on two different sides of the Jordan River, with Samson battling the Philistines on the west side Jephthah battling the Ammonites on the east side. On the one hand, the west side suffered the loss of the Ark of the Covenant; but on the other hand, we read about Samson’s deeds and the rule of Samuel. On the east side we learn about these judges: Jephthah, Ibzan, Elon, and Abdon, for a total of 59 years.

The Reign of Sha’ul 20 years

David in Hebron 7 years

David in Jerusalem 33 years

Solomon until the construction of the Temple began 3 years

Total number of years 480 years

The Results of the Era of the Judges: Chapters 17 to 21 serve to illustrate the tribal disorder of the period covered by the book of Judges. The first appendix describes the migration of the tribe of Dan, and the second appendix describes Isra’el’s war against the tribe of Benjamin. But these two appendices are not chronological. The migration of Dan probably occurred after Samson’s judgeship, but the war against the tribe of Benjamin occurred much earlier, especially if Judges 20:28 is compared with Joshua 22:13 and 24:33.

Purpose: Two basic purposes come into play in the book of Judges. First, was to demonstrate that Isra’el was in need of a king. But more specifically, the second purpose was to support the claims of king David against the claims of the House of Sha’ul. As a result, in Judges, Gibeah, which later became the home of Sha’ul, is shown in a negative light; whereas Bethlehem, the home of David, is shown in a positive light.

Key Verses: There are three key verses in Judges. But then ADONAI raised up judges, who rescued them from the power of those who were plundering them. Yet, they did not pay attention to their judges, but they made they committed spiritual adultery with other gods and worshiped them; they quickly turned away from the path on which their ancestors had walked, and failed to obey ADONAI’s mitzvot (2:16-17). And at that time there was no king in Isra’el; everyone did whatever seemed right in their own eyes (17:6).

Themes: There are at least three basic themes in the book: First, Isra’el’s struggle, or how they became more and more like the Canaanites and less and less Israelite, and ADONAI’s faithfulness through it all. This first theme is that of military and spiritual struggles of the Covenant people as they tried to settle in the Promised Land promised to them by the LORD.

The second theme is the “Canaanization of Israelite society” during the period of the settlement. The book of Joshua ended on a positive note, when things were going well and there was rest for all the families of the nation settling into their inherited portion of the Land. But the book of Joshua also warns that not all of the land promised to Isra’el had been conquered. That failure, now becomes a full-blown crisis, and the warnings against spiritual adultery with the Canaanites and worshipping their gods are all ignored during the period of the Judges. The high spiritual level seen in Joshua collapses. Instead, the book of Judges begins with conflict in the Land against the enemies who should have already been destroyed (see the commentary on Deuteronomy Ag – The Problem of Holy War in the TaNaKh), and closes with Isra’el’s apostasy and spiritual adultery that already should have been wiped out.

A third theme is the contrast between the covenantal faithfulness of ADONAI and Isra’el’s covenantal spiritual adultery.²

With a total of twelve judges, there were actually twelve cycles, but the author does not detail all twelve cycles, he details only seven cycles.

Judges, Where Life and the Bible Meet . . .

1. Look at the outline (Ab), and the Introduction (Ac) before starting on the commentary itself.

2. The DIG and REFLECT questions are in bold royal blue and will help to give you a deeper understanding of the book and make it more personal to you. Go slowly and give yourself time to answer these questions. They really strike at the heart of the commentary. What are the DIG questions for? To dig into the Scripture “story.” To find out what’s going on, to figure out the main idea, the plot, the argument, the spiritual principle, and so on. What are the REFLECT questions for? To apply the “story” in the Scripture to your own life; to take personal inventory and to decide what you are going to do about it! Many of the DIG and REFLECT questions are taken from the Serendipity Bible.

3. I would strongly suggest that you look up the references that are given in each section. Many times, this will greatly enhance the background, and hence, your understanding of the Scriptures that you are reading on a particular day. Take your time, read only as much as you can digest.

There are times when I refer you to either another file in Romans, or a file in another book of the Bible, to give you more detail on a particular person, topic, concept or theology. An example might be something like the Great Sanhedrin (see my commentary on The Life of Christ, to see link click Lg – The Great Sanhedrin). If you feel you already know enough about the Great Sanhedrin, you can skip the reference and continue reading. But if it interests you, or if you don’t know what the Great Sanhedrin is, you can go to that file and read it first before continuing. It’s your choice. 

4. All Scripture is in bold print. The NIV is used unless indicated otherwise. However, sometimes the purpose of the bold print is merely for emphasizing a certain point. When bold maroon is used, it is for special emphasis. The words of Yeshua are bolded in red.

5. When bold teal is used in the text, it is quoted from the Soncino Press, Judges, by Aaron Cohen, London, United Kingdom, 1953. It is useful for word studies and historical context, but its Christology is obviously entirely wrong. Where rabbinical interpretation is cited, I will add, “The rabbis teach. . .” in front of the passage. Although it is not a Christian interpretation, I think it is interesting to see how the rabbis interpret these passages.

6. Read the Scriptures for a particular day first, then skim the DIG or REFLECT questions, read the commentary and reflect on it; answer the DIG or REFLECT questions, then read your Bible again. Hopefully, it will have greater meaning for you the second time you read it. Then live it out.

7. We have added two new features to our site. First, at the top of the page you can choose to “Save This Pages as a PDF” by simply clicking on the red rectangle; secondly, at the bottom of the page we have added a “text to speech” feature. Just click on the triangle in the middle of the black circle and you can hear the entire file. To go to the next paragraph, either forward, or backwards, click on the double arrows.

8. If you come to a Jewish word or phrase you do not understand, see the Glossary at the beginning of the book (see Ad – Glossary).

9. To download a pdf file, click on the red rectangle on the top of the page.

10. To hear the file read to you from the Ttsreader click on the triangle at the bottom of the page.

11. You can download anything you want from this devotional commentary for bible study. Nothing can be sold © 2026 all rights are reserved by Jay David Mack, M.Div.